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  1. Exams
  2. GATE CS & IT
  3. Computer Science and Information Technology
  4. Databases
medium11 marks

Databases

ER-model, relational model, relational algebra, tuple calculus, SQL, integrity constraints, normal forms, file organization, indexing (B, B+ trees), transactions, concurrency control.

12 Topics
40h prep
15.28% subject weight
12 Topics
1

ER-model

Entity-Relationship model: entities, attributes, relationships, keys.

1m1/10
📌 Key FormulaCardinality constraints (1:1, 1:N, M:N).
2

Relational model

Tables (relations), attributes, tuples, keys (candidate, primary, foreign), integrity constraints.

1m1/10
📌 Key FormulaReferential integrity: foreign key must match primary key or be NULL.
3

Relational algebra

Operators: select (σ), project (π), join (⨝), union, difference, rename (ρ), Cartesian product.

1m2/10
📌 Key FormulaJoin: natural, inner, outer (left/right/full).
4

Tuple calculus

Non-procedural query language: {t | condition(t)}.

2/10
📌 Key FormulaSafe tuple calculus avoids infinite results.
5

SQL

Structured Query Language: DDL, DML, DCL, queries (SELECT, JOIN, GROUP BY, HAVING, subqueries).

2m2/10
📌 Key FormulaSet operations: UNION, INTERSECT, EXCEPT.
6

Integrity constraints

Domain constraint, key constraint, entity integrity, referential integrity, check constraints.

1/10
📌 Key FormulaForeign key references primary key.
7

Normal forms

1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF, 5NF; decomposition, lossless join, dependency preservation.

2m3/10
📌 Key FormulaBCNF: for every FD X→Y, X is superkey.
8

File organization

Heap file, sorted file, hashed file, clustered file organization.

1/10
📌 Key FormulaRecord placement.
9

Indexing (e.g.

Search key, primary index, secondary index, dense/sparse, multilevel.

1m2/10
📌 Key FormulaIndex cost equations.
10

B and B+ trees)

Balanced tree indexes: B-tree and B+tree, search, insert, delete.

1m3/10
📌 Key FormulaOrder m: each node has at most m children. Height O(log n).
11

Transactions

ACID properties: atomicity, consistency, isolation, durability; states: active, committed, aborted.

1m2/10
📌 Key FormulaCommit and rollback.
12

Concurrency control

Locking (2PL), timestamp ordering, validation-based protocols, deadlock handling.

1m3/10
📌 Key FormulaStrict 2PL: all locks released after commit.